European Union

Background

In the aftermath and devastation of the two World Wars, a number of far-sighted European leaders in the late 1940s sought to respond to the overwhelming desire for peace and reconciliation on the continent. In 1950, French Foreign Minister Robert SCHUMAN proposed pooling the production of coal and steel in Western Europe, which would bring France and West Germany together and be open to other countries as well. The following year, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was set up when six members -- Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands -- signed the Treaty of Paris.

Within a few years, the ECSC was so successful that member states decided to further integrate their economies. In 1957, envisioning an "ever closer union," the Treaties of Rome created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), which eliminated trade barriers among the six member states to create a common market. In 1967, the institutions of all three communities were formally merged into the European Community (EC), creating a single Commission, a single Council of Ministers, and a legislative body known today as the European Parliament. Members of the European Parliament were initially selected by national parliaments, but direct elections began in 1979 and have been held every five years since.

In 1973, the first enlargement of the EC added Denmark, Ireland, and the UK. The 1980s saw further membership expansion, with Greece joining in 1981 and Spain and Portugal in 1986. The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht laid the basis for further cooperation in foreign and defense policy and judicial and internal affairs, as well as the creation of an economic and monetary union -- including a common currency. The Maastricht Treaty created the European Union (EU), at the time standing alongside the EC. In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU/EC, raising the total number of member states to 15. On 1 January 1999, the new euro currency was launched in world markets and became the unit of exchange for all EU member states except Denmark, Sweden, and the UK. In 2002, citizens of the 12 participating member states began using euro banknotes and coins.

In an effort to ensure that the EU could function efficiently with an expanded membership, the Treaty of Nice in 2000 set forth rules to streamline the size and procedures of the EU's institutions. An effort to establish a "Constitution for Europe," growing out of a Convention held in 2002-2003, foundered when it was rejected in referenda in France and the Netherlands in 2005. A subsequent effort in 2007 incorporated many features of the rejected draft Constitutional Treaty, while also making a number of substantive as well as symbolic changes. The new treaty, referred to as the Treaty of Lisbon, sought to amend existing treaties rather than replace them. The treaty was approved at a conference of member states, and after all member states ratified, the Lisbon Treaty came into force on 1 December 2009, at which point the EU officially replaced and succeeded the EC.

Ten new countries joined the EU in 2004 -- Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007 and Croatia in 2013. UK citizens on 23 June 2016 narrowly voted to leave the EU; the formal exit, widely known as "Brexit," took place on 31 January 2020. The EU and the UK negotiated a withdrawal agreement that included a status quo transition period through December 2020, when the follow-on EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement was concluded. Current EU membership stands at 27. Eight of the newer member states -- Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Slovakia, and Slovenia -- have now adopted the euro, bringing total euro-zone membership to 20.

Preliminary statement

The development of the European Union (EU) is unparalleled in historical context, evolving from a regional economic pact involving six neighboring nations in 1951 to a contemporary hybrid organization that combines intergovernmental and supranational elements, encompassing 27 countries across Europe. The phenomenon of numerous nation-states relinquishing portions of their sovereignty to a central authority is exceptional. Historically, dynastic unions for the purpose of territorial consolidation were common in Europe, with instances of country-level unions, such as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, occurring occasionally.

While the EU does not fit the definition of a federation in the conventional sense, it surpasses a mere free-trade agreement like ASEAN or Mercosur. It possesses certain characteristics typically associated with independent nations: its own flag, a currency (for some member states), legislative powers, along with diplomatic representation and a cohesive foreign and security policy in its interactions with external entities.

Consequently, The World Factbook presents fundamental details about the EU as an independent entity.

Area

Climate

cold temperate; potentially subarctic in the northern regions to temperate; mild wet winters; hot dry summers in the southern parts

Terrain

relatively flat along the Baltic and Atlantic coastlines; mountainous in central and southern regions

Location

Europe positioned between the North Atlantic Ocean to the west and Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine to the east

Coastline

53,563.9 km

Elevation

Irrigated land

154,539.82 sq km (2011 est.)

Map references

Europe

Land boundaries

Natural hazards

coastal flooding; avalanches in mountainous regions; earthquakes in the southern areas; volcanic activity in Italy; occasional droughts in Spain; ice floes in the Baltic Sea area

Natural resources

iron ore, natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, lead, zinc, bauxite, uranium, potash, salt, hydropower, arable land, timber, fish

Area - comparative

less than half the size of the United States

Population distribution

the distribution of population varies significantly from one nation to another but generally follows a pattern of coastal and river settlements, with urban agglomerations creating major hubs; the region encompassing the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg (collectively referred to as Benelux) is the most densely populated area within the EU

Languages

Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, Swedish

Religions

Roman Catholic 41%, Orthodox 10%, Protestant 9%, other Christian 4%, Muslim 2%, other 4% (includes Jewish, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu), atheist 10%, non-believer/agnostic 17%, unspecified 3% (2019 est.)

Sex ratio

Birth rate

8.9 births/1,000 population (2024 est.)

Death rate

11.2 deaths/1,000 population (2024 est.)

Median age

Population

Age structure

Dependency ratios

Health expenditure

10.9% of GDP (2021)

Net migration rate

-2.85 migrant(s)/1,000 population

Total fertility rate

1.54 children born/woman (2024 est.)

Education expenditure

5% of GDP (2020 est.)

Infant mortality rate

Population growth rate

0.1% (2021 est.)

Gross reproduction rate

0.75 (2024 est.)

Population distribution

the distribution of population shows significant variation across different nations, yet it generally aligns with patterns of settlement near coastlines and rivers, leading to the emergence of substantial urban centers; the region encompassing the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg, collectively referred to as Benelux, represents the most densely populated area within the EU.

Life expectancy at birth

Climate

cold temperate; possibly subarctic in the northern regions to temperate; mild and wet winters; hot and dry summers in the southern areas

Environmental issues

different types of air, soil, and water pollution; refer to specific country entries

Carbon dioxide emissions

Total renewable water resources

1.7 trillion cubic meters (2019)

International environmental agreements

Flag

description: a blue background featuring 12 gold five-pointed stars arranged in a circular pattern at the center; the blue symbolizes the Western world's sky, while the stars represent unity, solidarity, and harmony

meaning: the fixed number of stars does not correlate with the count of member states

Capital

Suffrage

18 years of age (16 years in Austria); universal; elections for the European Parliament occur in every member state

Union name

Constitution

Independence

7 February 1992 (signing of the Maastricht Treaty establishing the European Union); 1 November 1993 (the Maastricht Treaty came into effect)

Legal system

a distinctive supranational system whereby EU treaties and EU law take precedence over national laws of member states

Member states

27 countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden

13 overseas countries and territories: 1 with Denmark (Greenland), 6 with France (French Polynesia, French Southern and Antarctic Lands, New Caledonia, Saint Barthelemy, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Wallis and Futuna), and 6 with the Netherlands (Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten); all are members of the Overseas Countries and Territories Association (OCTA)

Government type

a hybrid and distinctive organization that operates through both intergovernmental and supranational frameworks

Judicial branch

Executive branch

There are three EU institutions whose roles can be classified as executive in character:

European Council - formed by the heads of state or government from member countries, alongside the president of the European Commission; convenes at least four times annually to provide overarching policy direction; the president of the European Council is selected by the leaders of EU member states for a term of 2 1/2 years, which may be renewed once.

president: António Costa (since 1 December 2024)

Council of the European Union - includes officials from member states, ranging from diplomats at working levels to cabinet ministers associated with specific policy areas such as foreign affairs, agriculture, or economics; it carries out policymaking, coordination, and legislative duties.

president: the presidency rotates among member states every six months.

European Commission - consists of 27 commissioners (one from each member state), including the president; the president allocates one or more policy areas, termed portfolios, to each commissioner; the Commission possesses the exclusive authority to initiate EU legislation, barring foreign and security/defense policy, and is accountable for overseeing the enforcement of EU law, executing the EU budget, negotiating in selected policy areas, and representing the EU externally in certain domains; the president is nominated for a five-year term by the European Council and must be approved by the European Parliament; the European Parliament also endorses the entire Commission for a term of five years.

president: Ursula von der Leyen (since 1 December 2019)

National holiday

Europe Day (commonly referred to as Schuman Day), 9 May (1950)

National color(s)

blue, yellow

Political parties

The Left or GUE/NGL
European Conservatives and Reformists or ECR
Greens/European Free Alliance or Greens/EFA
European People's Party or EPP
Europe of Sovereign Nations or ESN
Patriots for Europe or PfE
Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats or S&D
Renew Europe or Renew (previously Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe or ALDE)

Legislative branch

National anthem(s)

National symbol(s)

a circle of 12 five-pointed golden-yellow stars on a blue field

Diplomatic representation in the US

Diplomatic representation from the US

International organization participation

ARF, ASEAN (dialogue member), Australian Group, BIS, BSEC (observer), CBSS, CERN, EBRD, FAO, FATF, G-7, G-10, G-20, IDA, IEA, IGAD (partners), LAIA (observer), NSG (observer), OAS (observer), OECD, PIF (partner), SAARC (observer), SICA (observer), UN (observer), UNRWA (observer), WCO, WTO, ZC (observer)

Exports

Imports

Industries

the European Union, recognized as one of the largest and technologically sophisticated areas globally, has an industrial foundation that encompasses: ferrous and non-ferrous metal production and processing, metal products, petroleum, coal, cement, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, aerospace, rail transport equipment, passenger and commercial vehicles, construction machinery, industrial machinery, shipbuilding, electrical power apparatus, machine tools and automated manufacturing systems, electronics and telecommunications devices, fishing, food and drink, furniture, paper, and textiles

Labor force

221.391 million (2024 est.)

Public debt

Remittances

Exchange rates

Unemployment rate

Exports - partners

US 20%, UK 12%, China 10%, Switzerland 7%, Turkey 4% (2023)

Imports - partners

China 21%, US 14%, UK 7%, Switzerland 6%, Norway 5% (2023)

Real GDP per capita

Real GDP growth rate

Agricultural products

milk, wheat, sugar beets, maize, potatoes, barley, grapes, pork, rapeseed, tomatoes (2022)

Exports - commodities

cars, packaged medicine, refined petroleum, vehicle parts/accessories, vaccines (2023)

Imports - commodities

cars, crude petroleum, natural gas, refined petroleum, vehicle parts/accessories (2023)

Taxes and other revenues

19.8% (of GDP) (2022 est.)

GDP (official exchange rate)

$19.423 trillion (2024 est.)

GDP - composition, by end use

Inflation rate (consumer prices)

Industrial production growth rate

-0.7% (2024 est.)

Real GDP (purchasing power parity)

Youth unemployment rate (ages 15-24)

GDP - composition, by sector of origin

Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income

Coal

Petroleum

Electricity

Natural gas

Nuclear energy

Electricity access

Energy consumption per capita

Electricity generation sources

Internet users

Internet country code

.eu

Telephones - fixed lines

Telephones - mobile cellular

Broadband - fixed subscriptions

Airports

5,211 (2025)

Railways

Heliports

2,069 (2025)

Military - note

The European Union collaborates with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which is a coalition of 32 nations from Europe and North America. Its mission is to ensure the safety of its member nations through both political and military means. NATO engages in crisis management and peacekeeping operations. Member states that partake in the military functions of the Alliance provide troops and equipment, which remain under their national command until NATO requires them for a defined objective (such as conflict resolution or peacekeeping). Nonetheless, NATO has some shared assets that are owned and operated by the Alliance, including certain early warning radar aircraft. The relationship between NATO and the EU was formalized in the early 2000s, building on initiatives from the 1990s aimed at enhancing European defense responsibilities. Their collaboration encompasses a wide range of topics, including crisis management, political and defense consultations, civil preparedness, capacity enhancement, military capabilities, maritime security, planning, cyber defense, countering hybrid threats, information sharing, logistics, defense industry, and counterterrorism. The cooperation between the EU and NATO has ramped up following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. Furthermore, NATO and the EU share 23 member states in common.

While there are no permanent standing forces for the EU, Europe has several multinational military organizations that can be deployed through the EU, in conjunction with NATO, at the behest of the participating nations, or under the auspices of other international organizations such as the UN or OSCE. These include:

The EU Rapid Deployment Capacity (EU RDC), which became operational in May 2025, is designed to allow the EU to respond effectively to various crisis scenarios by providing a flexible and scalable military force of up to 5,000 troops that can be deployed rapidly. Possible missions could involve capacity building, conflict prevention, humanitarian aid, disaster relief, rescue and evacuation, or stabilization efforts. The deployment of the RDC requires a unanimous decision from the EU Member States.

EU Battlegroups (BGs) are multinational rapid reaction units that are essential to the EU's ability to respond to crises and conflicts. Their deployment requires a unanimous decision from the European Council. BGs typically consist of 1,500-2,000 troops organized around an infantry battalion, depending on the nature of the mission. The troops and equipment are sourced from EU member states and are directed by a lead nation. Two BGs are always on standby for a duration of six months. Although BGs were declared operational in 2007, they have yet to be utilized in actual operations owing to political and financial hindrances.

The European Corps (Eurocorps) is an independent multinational land force corps headquarters, which comprises personnel from six framework nations and five associated nations. The corps lacks standing operational units; in times of crisis, units would be assembled from the participating states, and the corps would serve under the EU and NATO. Eurocorps was founded in 1992 by France and Germany, with Belgium (1993), Spain (1994), and Luxembourg (1996) joining in subsequent years. Poland became a member in 2022, while Greece and Turkey (since 2002), as well as Italy, Romania, and Austria (since 2009, 2016, and 2021 respectively) are involved as associated nations. Eurocorps is based in France.

The European Gendarmerie Force (EURGENDFOR) is a pre-organized, operational, and rapidly deployable European gendarmerie/police force. It is not structured at the EU level but is capable of executing police functions, including law enforcement, stability operations, and training in support of the EU, UN, OSCE, NATO, and other international entities or ad hoc coalitions. Member state gendarmeries include those from France, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, and Spain. The Lithuanian Public Security Service is a partner, while Turkey's Gendarmerie acts as an observer force.

The European Medical Corps (EMC) was established in response to the Ebola crisis in West Africa in 2014 to facilitate the deployment of teams and resources from EU member states to provide medical assistance and public health expertise during emergencies both within and outside the EU. Twelve European countries have pledged teams and resources to the EMC.

The European Medical Command (EMC) was created to ensure a standing EU medical capability, enhance medical operational readiness, and improve interoperability among participating EU members. It closely collaborates with the NATO Framework Nations Concept’s Multinational Medical Coordination Center (MMCC) under a unified administrative and infrastructural structure (MMCC/EMC). The EMC was declared operational in May 2022.

The European Air Transport Command (EATC) is a unified multinational command overseeing more than 150 military air mobility assets from seven member nations, which encompass transport, air-to-air refueling, and aeromedical evacuation capabilities. The EATC headquarters is situated in the Netherlands, while the air assets remain stationed at national air bases of member states. The EATC was established in 2010.

The European Air Group (EAG) is an independent entity formed by the air forces of its seven member countries (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, and the UK) aimed at enhancing interoperability among the air forces of EAG members and its 14 partner and associate nations. It was founded in the late 1990s and is based in the UK.

The European Maritime Force (EUROMARFOR or EMF) is a non-standing naval force comprising four nations (France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain), capable of executing naval, air, and amphibious operations. Established in 1995, EUROMARFOR conducts missions such as crisis response, humanitarian assistance, peacekeeping, peace enforcement, and sea control. It can deploy under EU, NATO, or UN mandates, provided there is agreement among the four partner nations.

The Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (CJEF) represents a deployable, combined military force between France and the UK, capable of fielding up to 10,000 personnel for a variety of crisis situations, including high-intensity combat operations. The CJEF lacks standing forces but can be mobilized on short notice for French-UK bilateral, NATO, EU, UN, or other missions. It was set up in 2010 and became operational in 2020.

The 1st German/Netherlands (Dutch) Corps is a combined army corps headquarters that can conduct operations under the command and control of Germany and the Netherlands, NATO, or the EU. In peacetime, approximately 1,100 German and Dutch soldiers are assigned, but during a crisis, up to 80,000 troops may be deployed. It was established in 1995 and is headquartered in Germany.

The Lithuanian-Polish-Ukrainian Brigade (LITPOLUKRBRIG) consists of an international staff, three battalions, and specialized units. Units associated with this multinational brigade remain integrated within the armed forces of their respective countries until the brigade is activated for international operations. It was established in 2014 and is headquartered in Poland (2025).

Military deployments

since 2003, the European Union has initiated over 30 missions related to civilian and military crisis management, advisory roles, and training across Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Middle East, including counter-piracy efforts off the coast of Somalia and a naval operation in the Mediterranean aimed at disrupting human smuggling and trafficking networks to prevent fatalities at sea (2025)

Military expenditures

Military and security forces

the Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP) of the EU establishes the civilian, military, and political frameworks necessary for managing crises and addressing security challenges within the EU; the principal bodies include:

the Political and Security Committee (PSC), which convenes at the ambassadorial level and serves as a preparatory body for the Council of the EU; it aids in policy definition and crisis response planning.

the European Union Military Committee (EUMC), the highest military authority within the EU, comprises the chiefs of defense (CHODs) from Member States, typically represented by their permanent Military Representatives; the EUMC offers advice and recommendations on military matters to the PSC.

the Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management (CIVCOM), which provides the PSC with counsel and recommendations regarding civilian elements of crisis management alongside the EUMC.

the Politico-Military Group (PMG) advises the PSC on political dimensions of EU military and civil-military issues, including concepts, capabilities, operations, missions, and oversees implementation.

other entities established under the CSDP include the Security and Defense Policy Directorate (SECDEFPOL), the Integrated approach for Security and Peace Directorate (ISP), the EU Military Staff (EUMS), the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC), the Civilian Operations Headquarters (CivOpsHQ), the Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC), the European Defense Agency (EDA), the European Security and Defense College (ESDC), the EU Institute for Security Studies, the EU Satellite Center, and the Peace, Partnerships and Crisis Management Directorate (PCM) (2025)

Terrorist group(s)

see individual EU member states

Space launch site(s)

The European Space Agency (ESA) operates its spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana; both Norway and Sweden, as members of the EU, have functional commercial spaceports; the United Kingdom, which is not part of the EU, has established two operational commercial spaceports by 2025.

Space agency/agencies

The EU Agency for the Space Program (EUSPA), founded in 2021, is the sole EU agency focused on space; it evolved from the Galileo Joint Undertaking (GJU), which was created in 2002 by the European Community (EC) and the European Space Agency (ESA) to oversee the development phase of Europe’s Galileo satellite navigation initiative. In 2007, the responsibilities of the GJU were transferred to the European Global Navigation Satellite System Supervisory Authority (GSA).

The ESA, which was formed in 1975 from the European Launcher Development Organization and the European Space Research Organization—both established in the early 1960s—functions as an independent entity while maintaining a close relationship with the EU through an ESA/EC Framework Agreement. The ESA and EC collaborate on a joint European Strategy for Space and have jointly crafted a European Space Policy.

Currently, the ESA comprises 23 member nations, whose national space agencies participate in ESA’s governing Council: Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK. Canada is also represented on the Council and collaborates on select projects under a Cooperation Agreement. Latvia, Lithuania, and Slovakia hold Associate Membership, while Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, and Malta have entered into cooperation agreements with the ESA. Additionally, as of 2025, the ESA has formalized collaborative arrangements with all EU member states that are not part of the ESA.

Space program overview

EU member states have a large and advanced commercial space sector that develops and produces a full range of capabilities and technologies; a key focus for both the European Space Agency (ESA) and the EU Agency for the Space Program (EUSPA) is encouraging this sector; Europe is a global leader in satellite-based communications and hosts the headquarters of three of the world’s major satellite communications companies

ESA is comprehensive space agency that is active across the space sector, except for launching humans into space; its activities include producing and operating satellites with a full spectrum of capabilities (communications, multipurpose, navigational, remote sensing, science/technology), satellite launch vehicles (SLVs), space launches, astronaut training, space transportation/automated transfer vehicles, reusable spacecraft, space station modules, spacecraft components, robotic space labs, lunar/planetary surface rovers, interplanetary space probes and exploration, and space telescopes; ESA participates in international programs such as the International Space Station and works closely with Europe’s commercial space industry; it also works with a broad range of space agencies and industries of non-member countries, including China, Japan, Russia, and the US; many of its programs are conducted jointly, particularly with the US space program

the EUSPA is responsible for the operational management of the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) and Galileo satellite navigation programs; the EU space strategy encourages investment in and the use of space services and data, fosters competition and innovation, develops space technologies, and reinforces Europe’s autonomy in accessing space (2025)

Key space-program milestones

1979 - The inaugural launch of the Ariane heavy-lift satellite launch vehicle (SLV) took place.

1980s-2011 - Participation in the US Space Shuttle program, which encompassed over 20 Spacelab missions from 1983 to 1998.

1995 - The first solar satellite/orbiter, known as SOHO, was launched.

1997-2017 - The Cassini-Huygens research mission conducted studies of Saturn.

1998-present - Involvement in various missions with staggered start dates, including the International Space Station, the International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory mission (INTEGRAL), the Mars Express orbiter exploration mission, the Rosetta comet probe (notable for achieving the first-ever landing on a comet in 2014), the Copernicus Earth observation program, the Mars orbiter mission (ExoMars), the Mercury planetary orbiter mission (BepiColombo), the Solar Orbiter mission, and the US Gateway Lunar orbital station initiative.

2016 - The Galileo satellite-based global navigation system attained initial operational capability.

2019 - The development of quantum communications infrastructure (EuroQCI) commenced.

2021 - The EU government satellite communications (GOVSATCOM) and Space Surveillance and Awareness (SSA) components of the EU space program were put into action; the world’s first commercial, fully flexible, reprogrammable quantum satellite was launched; also, the US-built James Webb Space Telescope was launched.

2023 - The Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) mission was launched, alongside the Euclid space observatory/telescope.

2024 - A successful test launch of the Ariane-6 SLV was conducted; the Hera probe was launched to investigate the asteroid Didymos and its moon Dimorphos.

2025 - The EU Space Act was announced, creating a collaborative framework for space activities throughout the EU.