Iran

Background

Iran, previously referred to as Persia until 1935, transitioned to an Islamic republic in 1979 following the overthrow of the ruling monarchy, which resulted in Shah Mohammad Reza PAHLAVI being forced into exile. A theocratic system of governance was established by conservative clerical factions under Ayatollah Ruhollah KHOMEINI, where the supreme political authority is held by a religious scholar known as the Supreme Leader, who is only accountable to an elected body of clerics called the Assembly of Experts, comprising 88 members. Tensions between the US and Iran escalated when Iranian students took control of the US Embassy in Tehran in November 1979, holding staff members hostage until mid-January 1981. In response, the US severed diplomatic ties with Iran in April 1980. From 1980 to 1988, Iran engaged in a protracted and bloody conflict with Iraq, which eventually extended into the Persian Gulf, resulting in confrontations between the US Navy and Iranian armed forces. Since 1984, Iran has been classified as a state sponsor of terrorism.

The election of reformist Hojjat ol-Eslam Mohammad KHATAMI as president in 1997, alongside a reformist Majles (legislature) elected in 2000, initiated a political reform movement aimed at addressing public discontent. However, conservative politicians obstructed reform efforts and intensified repression. The municipal and legislative elections in 2003 and 2004 allowed conservatives to regain dominance over Iran's elected governmental bodies, culminating in the inauguration of hardliner Mahmud AHMADI-NEJAD as president in 2005. His reelection in 2009 incited widespread protests due to allegations of electoral fraud, with demonstrations continuing until 2011. In 2013, the Iranian populace elected centrist cleric Dr. Hasan Fereidun RUHANI as president, a veteran regime member who pledged to implement societal and foreign policy reforms. The abrupt increase in gasoline prices in Tehran in 2019 triggered nationwide protests, which were met with violent repression by the regime. Conservatives dominated the Majles elections in 2020, and in 2021, hardline cleric Ebrahim RAISI was elected president, consolidating a conservative hegemony across both elected and unelected governmental institutions.

Iran remains under a wide array of international sanctions and export restrictions due to its involvement in terrorism, proliferation of weapons, violations of human rights, and issues regarding its nuclear program. Following the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action's (JCPOA) Implementation Day in 2016, Iran received relief from nuclear-related sanctions in return for nuclear concessions. However, in 2018, the US reinstated nuclear-related sanctions after ceasing its participation in the JCPOA. As of October 2023, the EU and the UK have opted to uphold nuclear-proliferation-related sanctions against Iran, along with arms and missile embargoes, due to Iran's failure to adhere to its JCPOA commitments.

During his presidency, RAISI has focused on strengthening Iran's diplomatic relations with anti-US nations, particularly China and Russia, to mitigate the impact of US sanctions and diplomatic pressure, while also endorsing negotiations aimed at restoring a nuclear agreement that commenced in 2021. RAISI faced nationwide protests that erupted in September 2022 and endured for over three months following the death of Mahsa AMINI, a Kurdish Iranian woman, while in the custody of the morality police. The protests, primarily led by youth and women, called for regime change.

Area

Climate

predominantly arid or semi-arid, with subtropical conditions along the Caspian coastline

Terrain

a rugged, mountainous perimeter; a high central basin featuring deserts and mountains; small, fragmented plains along both coastal regions

Land use

Location

Located in the Middle East, it shares borders with the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf, and the Caspian Sea, situated between Iraq and Pakistan

Coastline

2,440 km

Elevation

Irrigated land

79,721 sq km (2020)

Map references

Middle East

Land boundaries

Maritime claims

Natural hazards

experiences periodic droughts and floods; prone to dust storms, sandstorms, and earthquakes

Geography - note

holds a strategic position near the Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz

Natural resources

resources include petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper, iron ore, lead, manganese, zinc, and sulfur

Area - comparative

approximately 2.5 times larger than Texas; slightly smaller than Alaska

Geographic coordinates

32 00 N, 53 00 E

Population distribution

the population is primarily found in the northern, northwestern, and western regions, reflecting the presence of the Zagros and Elburz Mountains; the extensive dry areas in the central and eastern regions, around the Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut deserts, exhibit a significantly lower population density

Major lakes (area sq km)

Major watersheds (area sq km)

Major rivers (by length in km)

Euphrates (shared with Turkey [s], Syria, and Iraq [m]) - 3,596 km; Tigris (shared with Turkey, Syria, and Iraq [m]) - 1,950 km; Helmand (shared with Afghanistan [s]) - 1,130 km

note: [s] indicates river source; [m] indicates river mouth after the country name

Literacy

Languages

Religions

Muslim (official) 98.5%, Christian 0.7%, Baha'i 0.3%, agnostic 0.3%, others (including Zoroastrian, Jewish, Hindu) 0.2% (2020 estimate)

Sex ratio

Birth rate

11.24 births/1,000 population (2025 est.)

Death rate

4.42 deaths/1,000 population (2025 est.)

Median age

Population

Nationality

Tobacco use

Urbanization

Age structure

Ethnic groups

Persians, Azeris, Kurds, Lurs, Balochs, Arabs, Turkmen, and various Turkic ethnic groups

Dependency ratios

Physician density

1.81 physicians/1,000 population (2023)

Health expenditure

Net migration rate

-15.52 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2025 est.)

Hospital bed density

1.9 beds/1,000 population (2019 est.)

Total fertility rate

1.53 children born/woman (2025 est.)

Drinking water source

Education expenditure

Infant mortality rate

Population growth rate

-0.87% (2025 est.)

Gross reproduction rate

0.74 (2025 est.)

Population distribution

the population is primarily situated in the northern, northwestern, and western regions, which corresponds to the locations of the Zagros and Elburz Mountains; in contrast, the expansive arid regions in the central and eastern areas of the nation, particularly around the deserts of Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut, exhibit a significantly lower population density

Life expectancy at birth

Maternal mortality ratio

16 deaths/100,000 live births (2023 est.)

Sanitation facility access

Alcohol consumption per capita

Major urban areas - population

9.500 million TEHRAN (capital), 3.368 million Mashhad, 2.258 million Esfahan, 1.721 million Shiraz, 1.661 million Tabriz, 1.594 million Karaj (2023)

Obesity - adult prevalence rate

25.8% (2016)

Currently married women (ages 15-49)

69.6% (2022 est.)

Children under the age of 5 years underweight

4.3% (2017 est.)

School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)

Climate

predominantly arid or semiarid, with a subtropical climate near the Caspian Sea

Geoparks

Land use

Urbanization

Methane emissions

Waste and recycling

Environmental issues

air contamination, particularly in city regions, resulting from vehicular emissions, refinery activities, and industrial discharges; deforestation; excessive grazing; desertification; oil contamination in the Persian Gulf; wetland degradation due to drought; soil deterioration (salinization); insufficient drinking water; water contamination from untreated sewage and industrial pollutants

Total water withdrawal

Carbon dioxide emissions

Particulate matter emissions

36.4 micrograms per cubic meter (2019 est.)

Total renewable water resources

137 billion cubic meters (2022 est.)

International environmental agreements

Flag

description: the flag features three equal horizontal stripes in green (top), white, and red; positioned at the center of the white stripe is the national emblem, which is a stylized representation of the word Allah shaped like a tulip (a symbol of martyrdom); the phrase ALLAH AKBAR (God is Great) is inscribed in white Arabic script, appearing 11 times along the lower edge of the green stripe and 11 times along the upper edge of the red stripe.

meaning: green symbolizes Islam and signifies growth, white represents honesty and peace, while red stands for courage and martyrdom.

Capital

Suffrage

18 years of age; universal

Citizenship

Constitution

Country name

Independence

1 April 1979 (Islamic Republic of Iran proclaimed); significant earlier milestones include approximately 550 B.C. (establishment of the Achaemenid or Persian Empire); A.D. 1501 (reunification of Iran under the Safavid dynasty); 1794 (initiation of the Qajar dynasty); 12 December 1925 (modern Iran founded under the PAHLAVI dynasty).

Legal system

a religious system that merges secular and Islamic legal frameworks.

Government type

a theocratic republic.

Judicial branch

Executive branch

National holiday

Republic Day, 1 April (1979)

National color(s)

green, white, red

National heritage

Political parties

Combatant Clergy Association (an active political group)
Executives of Construction Party
Front of Islamic Revolutionary Stability
Islamic Coalition Party
Progress and Justice Population of Islamic Iran
Militant Clerics Society (Majma-e Ruhaniyoun-e Mobarez) or MRM
Moderation and Development Party
National Trust Party (Hezb-e E'temad-eMelli) or HEM
Progress and Justice Society
Union of Islamic Iran People's Party (Hezb-e Ettehad-e Iran-e Eslami)

Legislative branch

National anthem(s)

National symbol(s)

lion

Administrative divisions

31 provinces (ostanha, singular - ostan); Alborz, Ardabil, Azarbayjan-e Gharbi (West Azerbaijan), Azarbayjan-e Sharqi (East Azerbaijan), Bushehr, Chahar Mahal va Bakhtiari, Esfahan, Fars, Gilan, Golestan, Hamadan, Hormozgan, Ilam, Kerman, Kermanshah, Khorasan-e Jonubi (South Khorasan), Khorasan-e Razavi (Razavi Khorasan), Khorasan-e Shomali (North Khorasan), Khuzestan, Kohgiluyeh va Bowyer Ahmad, Kordestan, Lorestan, Markazi, Mazandaran, Qazvin, Qom, Semnan, Sistan va Baluchestan, Tehran, Yazd, Zanjan.

Diplomatic representation in the US

none

note: Iran operates an Interests Section within the Pakistani Embassy; address: Iranian Interests Section, Embassy of Pakistan, 1250 23rd Street NW, Washington, DC 20037; telephone: [1] (202) 965-4990; FAX [1] (202) 965-1073; email: [email protected]; [email protected]; website: https://daftar.org/

Diplomatic representation from the US

International organization participation

BRICS, CICA, CP, D-8, ECO, FAO, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, MIGA, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OPEC, PCA, SAARC (observer), SCO (observer), UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNOOSA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO (observer)

International law organization participation

has not provided a declaration regarding ICJ jurisdiction; not a state party to the ICCt

Budget

Exports

Imports

Industries

petroleum, petrochemicals, natural gas, fertilizers, caustic soda, textiles, cement and other construction materials, food processing (notably sugar refining and vegetable oil manufacturing), ferrous and nonferrous metal production, armaments

Labor force

28.575 million (2024 est.)

Public debt

Remittances

Exchange rates

Debt - external

Economic overview

historically a state-controlled economy, now reforming state-owned financial institutions; robust oil and gas, agricultural, and service sectors; recent significant inflation attributed to currency depreciation, international sanctions, and uncertainty among investors; rising poverty levels

Unemployment rate

Exports - partners

China 35%, Turkey 16%, India 8%, Pakistan 7%, Armenia 5% (2023)

Imports - partners

China 34%, UAE 20%, Turkey 11%, Brazil 8%, Germany 4% (2023)

Real GDP per capita

Real GDP growth rate

Agricultural products

wheat, sugarcane, milk, sugar beets, rice, tomatoes, barley, potatoes, oranges, apples (2023)

Exports - commodities

plastics, iron ore, alcohols, natural gas, refined copper (2023)

Imports - commodities

broadcasting equipment, vehicle parts/accessories, corn, soybeans, vehicle bodies (2023)

GDP (official exchange rate)

$436.906 billion (2024 est.)

GDP - composition, by end use

Average household expenditures

Inflation rate (consumer prices)

Industrial production growth rate

2.8% (2024 est.)

Real GDP (purchasing power parity)

Youth unemployment rate (ages 15-24)

GDP - composition, by sector of origin

Household income or consumption by percentage share

Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income

Coal

Petroleum

Electricity

Natural gas

Nuclear energy

Electricity access

Energy consumption per capita

Electricity generation sources

Internet users

Broadcast media

The media landscape is dominated by state-controlled outlets, with no presence of private or independent broadcasting entities. The Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB), which is the official television broadcaster of the state, manages more than 60 television channels, over 50 radio stations, as well as numerous newspapers and online platforms. Additionally, approximately 20 foreign Persian-language television channels are accessible via satellite in Iran; however, the use of satellite dishes is prohibited and these devices are occasionally seized. Most significant international broadcasters provide transmission services to Iran (2023)

Internet country code

.ir

Telephones - fixed lines

Telephones - mobile cellular

Broadband - fixed subscriptions

Ports

Airports

177 (2025)

Railways

Heliports

90 (2025)

Merchant marine

Civil aircraft registration country code prefix

EP

Military - note

The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) was established in May 1979, shortly after the fall of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, amidst a power struggle involving leftists, nationalists, and Islamists. While the interim prime minister held authority over the government and state institutions, such as the military, supporters of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini formed counterbalancing entities, including the IRGC, to safeguard the Islamic revolution. The command structure of the IRGC circumvented the elected president and reported directly to Khomeini. The IRGC played a pivotal role in aiding Khomeini in solidifying his power following the 1979 revolution, ensuring that his Islamic revolutionary ideals triumphed against domestic opposition from nationalist and leftist groups during the tumultuous period following the Shah's exit.

The Iran-Iraq War (1980–88) evolved the IRGC into a more conventional military force, incorporating its own ground, air, naval, and special operations units, as well as oversight of Iran’s strategic missile and rocket capabilities. Presently, the IRGC functions as a highly structured military organization that operates parallel to Iran’s conventional armed forces (Artesh). It is engaged in internal security and wields considerable influence in the political and economic realms of Iranian society, alongside Iran’s foreign policy. Economically, it owns factories, corporations, and subsidiaries across sectors such as banking, infrastructure, housing, airlines, and tourism. The IRGC's special operations division, known as the Qods/Quds Force, focuses on international missions and has supplied advice, funding, guidance, material support, training, and weaponry to militants in nations including Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen, as well as to extremist factions like Hamas, Hizballah, Kata’ib Hizballah, and Palestine Islamic Jihad. The Qods Force is also involved in intelligence and reconnaissance activities. Note that both the IRGC and the Qods Force have been classified as foreign terrorist organizations by the United States (refer to Terrorist Organizations under References).

The Supreme Council for National Security (SCNS) stands as the highest authority for shaping Iran’s foreign and security policy. It is officially chaired by the president, who also appoints the SCNS secretary. Its membership includes the speaker of the Majles, the head of the judiciary, the chief of the Armed Forces General Staff (chief of defense or CHOD), the commanders of the Artesh and IRGC, as well as the ministers of defense, foreign affairs, interior, and intelligence. The SCNS reports to the supreme leader, who serves as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

The Iranian Armed Forces are divided into the regular forces (Artesh) and the IRGC. The Artesh is primarily tasked with protecting Iran’s borders and territorial waters from external threats, whereas the IRGC has a wider mandate to defend the Iranian revolution from any foreign or domestic dangers. In 1989, Iran created the Armed Forces General Staff to synchronize military operations across both the Artesh and the IRGC. Additionally, Iran has a joint military command structure, the Khatam ol-Anbia Central Headquarters, which directs the Artesh and IRGC during wartime (2024).

Military deployments

note: Iran maintained a military presence in Syria and recruited, trained, and funded thousands of Syrian and foreign fighters to support the Assad regime during the Syrian civil war (2011-December 2024).

Military expenditures

Military and security forces

The military forces of Iran are categorized into the Islamic Republic of Iran Regular Forces (Artesh) and the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC or Sepah):

Artesh: Ground Forces, Navy (including marines), Air Force, Air Defense Forces.

IRGC: Ground Forces, Navy (including marines), Aerospace Force (oversees the strategic missile force), Qods Force (also known as Quds Force; special operations), Cyber Electronic Command, Basij Paramilitary Forces.

Ministry of Interior: Law Enforcement Command (FARAJA).

Ministry of Intelligence and Security (2025).

Military service age and obligation

Military service is voluntary for men at age 16; it is mandatory for all Iranian men at the age of 18 or 19. The compulsory service requirement lasts between 14 to 21 months, depending on the location of service. Women are exempt from conscription but may opt to volunteer (2025).

Military equipment inventories and acquisitions

The inventory of the Iranian military comprises a combination of equipment that is both domestically manufactured and imported, primarily from Chinese, Russian/Soviet, and American sources (the latter being acquired before the Islamic Revolution in 1979). Additionally, some military hardware from North Korea, including midget submarines and ballistic missiles, is present. In recent years, Iran has also procured modern equipment from Russia. The nation possesses a defense industry capable of developing, producing, supporting, and maintaining its air, land, missile, and naval weaponry programs (2025)

Military and security service personnel strengths

Data appears to vary; the total number of active military personnel may reach up to 600,000. This figure includes an estimated 400,000 members of the Islamic Republic of Iran Regular Forces (comprising 350,000 Ground Forces; 18,000 Navy; and 40,000 Air Force/Air Defense Forces) and up to around 190,000 individuals from the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (with 100,000 to 150,000 Ground Forces; 20,000 Navy; 15,000 Aerospace Force; and 5,000 Qods Force). There are also an estimated 90,000 active members of the Basij Paramilitary Forces (2025)

Terrorist group(s)

Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC)/Qods Force; Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham (ISIS); Jaysh al Adl (Jundallah); Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK); al-Qa’ida

Trafficking in persons

Refugees and internally displaced persons

Space launch site(s)

Imam Khomeini Space Center (also known as Semnan Space Center; located in Semnan province); Shahroud Space Center (in Semnan Province; operated by the IRGC); Chabahar Space Center (in Sistan and Baluchistan Province; currently under development) (2025)

Space agency/agencies

Iranian Space Agency (ISA; established in 2003); Iran Space Research Center (ISRC; founded in 2000); Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces Logistics (MODAFL); Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps - Aerospace Force (IRGC-ARF) (2024)

Space program overview

pursues a comprehensive civil and military space program emphasizing satellites and satellite launch vehicles (SLVs); engages in the design, construction, and operation of various satellites, encompassing communications, remote sensing (RS), and scientific research; manufactures and operates SLVs; is involved in the research and development of additional space-related capabilities and technologies across telecommunications, RS, navigation, and space situational awareness; international sanctions imposed on Iran’s weapons of mass destruction initiatives have significantly restricted its collaboration with foreign space agencies and commercial space enterprises; nevertheless, in recent years, it has partnered with North Korea and Russia, along with regional and global space organizations such as the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization and the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization; Iran was a founding member of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) established in 1958; maintains an active private space sector (2025)

Key space-program milestones

1998 - initiated the development of a 2-stage satellite/space launch vehicle (SLV) known as Safir.

2006 - achieved the first successful launch of a small, domestically manufactured communications and research satellite named Omid using the Safir SLV.

2010 - commenced the development of a more advanced 2-stage orbital SLV, referred to as Simorgh (also known as Safir-2).

2011 - successfully launched the first domestically produced remote sensing (RS) satellite, Rasad, utilizing the Safir SLV.

2020 - successfully placed the RS microsatellite Noor into orbit using a 3-stage SLV called Qased (or Messenger).

2021 - conducted the inaugural launch of a road-mobile 3-stage SLV, Zuljanah.

2022 - completed a suborbital test of a new small-lift SLV named Quam-100.