Saudi Arabia

Background

Islam originated in Saudi Arabia, which is also the location of its two most sacred sites in Mecca and Medina. The official designation of the king is the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The modern Saudi state was established by ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman AL SAUD (Ibn Saud) in 1932, following a three-decade effort to unify the majority of the Arabian Peninsula. Currently, one of his male heirs governs the nation, as stipulated by the 1992 Basic Law of the country. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia welcomed the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees, permitting both Western and Arab military forces to be stationed on its territory to liberate Kuwait the subsequent year. A series of significant terrorist attacks in 2003 prompted a vigorous and ongoing initiative against domestic terrorism and extremism. In 2019, US military personnel returned to the Kingdom in response to assaults on Saudi oil infrastructure.

Between 2005 and 2015, King ABDALLAH bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud progressively modernized the Kingdom through numerous social and economic reforms that included enhancing employment and social prospects for women, attracting foreign investments, increasing the private sector's contribution to the economy, and discouraging the recruitment of foreign workers. Although Saudi Arabia experienced some protests during the Arab Spring of 2011, the level of violence was significantly lower than in other regional protests; Riyadh adopted a careful yet firm stance, detaining and promptly releasing some demonstrators while employing state-sponsored clerics to counter political and Islamist movements. The government conducted its inaugural elections in 2005 and 2011, allowing Saudis to vote for municipal councilors. King ABDALLAH's reforms gained momentum under King SALMAN bin Abd al-Aziz, who became king in 2015, lifting the ban on women driving, enacting education reforms, financing green projects, and permitting cinemas to resume operations after decades. In 2015, women were granted the right to vote and run for office in municipal elections, with 19 women securing council seats. Initially, King SALMAN appointed his nephew, MUHAMMAD BIN NAYIF bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud, as Crown Prince, but a palace coup in 2017 led to the appointment of King SALMAN's son, Deputy Crown Prince MUHAMMAD BIN SALMAN bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud, as Crown Prince. In 2022, King SALMAN named MUHAMMAD BIN SALMAN as prime minister.

In 2015, Saudi Arabia spearheaded a coalition of 10 nations in a military operation aimed at restoring Yemen's legitimate government, which had been displaced by Houthi forces. The conflict in Yemen has faced international condemnation due to civilian casualties and its impact on the country's severe humanitarian crisis. That same year, MUHAMMAD BIN SALMAN declared that Saudi Arabia would take the lead in a multi-national Islamic Coalition to combat terrorism, and in 2017, the country established the Global Center for Combatting Extremist Ideology, also referred to as "Etidal."

Saudi Arabia remains one of the top producers of oil and natural gas, possessing approximately 17% of the world's confirmed oil reserves as of 2020. The government is actively engaged in economic reform and diversification efforts—particularly since its entry into the WTO in 2005—and encourages foreign investment within the Kingdom. In 2016, the Saudi Government unveiled extensive socio-economic reforms known as Vision 2030. The decline in global oil prices in 2015 and 2016 drastically reduced Saudi Arabia's governmental revenue, leading to cuts in subsidies for water, electricity, and gasoline; decreased compensation for government employees; and the introduction of new land taxes. Working with OPEC and several key non-OPEC nations, Saudi Arabia consented to reduce oil production in 2017 to stabilize supply and enhance global prices. However, in 2020, this agreement fell apart, prompting Saudi Arabia to instigate a price war by saturating the market with low-cost oil before re-entering negotiations to establish a significant output reduction that aided in price stabilization.

Area

Climate

a severe, arid desert characterized by significant temperature fluctuations

Terrain

predominantly a sandy desert

Land use

Location

located in the Middle East, adjacent to the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, and situated to the north of Yemen

Coastline

2,640 km

Elevation

Irrigated land

7,575 sq km (2022)

Major aquifers

Arabian Aquifer System

Map references

Middle East

Land boundaries

Maritime claims

Natural hazards

regular occurrences of sand and dust storms

volcanic activity: minimal activity noted in recent centuries, in spite of numerous volcanic structures; notable volcanoes include Harrat Rahat, Harrat Khaybar, Harrat Lunayyir, and Jabal Yar

Geography - note

Saudi Arabia ranks as the largest nation globally that lacks any rivers; its extensive coastlines along the Persian Gulf and Red Sea facilitate significant shipping operations (notably crude oil) via the Persian Gulf and Suez Canal

Natural resources

oil, natural gas, iron ore, gold, copper

Area - comparative

a little over one-fifth the area of the United States

Geographic coordinates

25 00 N, 45 00 E

Population distribution

traditionally, the populace was primarily nomadic or semi-nomadic, but since the discovery of oil in the 1930s, the Saudi population has increasingly settled; the majority of residents are now located across a broad region in the central part of the peninsula, extending from Ad Dammam in the east through Riyadh in the interior to the Mecca-Medina area in the west by the Red Sea

Major watersheds (area sq km)

Literacy

Languages

Religions

Muslim (official; citizens consist of 85-90% Sunni and 10-12% Shia), others (comprising Eastern Orthodox, Protestant, Roman Catholic, Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, and Sikh) (2020 est.)

Sex ratio

Birth rate

13.41 births/1,000 population (2025 est.)

Death rate

3.51 deaths/1,000 population (2025 est.)

Median age

Population

Nationality

Tobacco use

Urbanization

Age structure

Ethnic groups

Arab 90%, Afro-Asian 10%

Dependency ratios

Physician density

3.41 physicians/1,000 population (2023)

Health expenditure

Net migration rate

7.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2025 est.)

Hospital bed density

2.2 beds/1,000 population (2021 est.)

Total fertility rate

1.84 children born/woman (2025 est.)

Drinking water source

Education expenditure

Infant mortality rate

Population growth rate

1.72% (2025 est.)

Gross reproduction rate

0.9 (2025 est.)

Population distribution

Traditionally, the population was primarily nomadic or semi-nomadic, but since the discovery of oil in the 1930s, the Saudi populace has become increasingly sedentary; today, the majority of the country's inhabitants are located in a broad area across the center of the peninsula, ranging from Ad Dammam in the east, through Riyadh in the interior, to Mecca-Medina in the west adjacent to the Red Sea.

Life expectancy at birth

Maternal mortality ratio

7 deaths/100,000 live births (2023 est.)

Sanitation facility access

Alcohol consumption per capita

Major urban areas - population

7.682 million RIYADH (capital), 4.863 million Jeddah, 2.150 million Mecca, 1.573 million Medina, 1.329 million Ad Dammam, 872,000 million Hufuf-Mubarraz (2023)

Obesity - adult prevalence rate

35.4% (2016)

Currently married women (ages 15-49)

55.3% (2022 est.)

Children under the age of 5 years underweight

3.5% (2020 est.)

School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)

Climate

a severe, arid desert characterized by significant temperature variations

Geoparks

Land use

Urbanization

Methane emissions

Waste and recycling

Environmental issues

desertification; exhaustion of subterranean water supplies; restricted freshwater availability; coastal contamination due to oil spills; atmospheric pollution; waste disposal issues

Total water withdrawal

Carbon dioxide emissions

Particulate matter emissions

60.7 micrograms per cubic meter (2019 est.)

Total renewable water resources

2.4 billion cubic meters (2022 est.)

International environmental agreements

Flag

description: green (a color traditionally associated with Islam) displaying the Shahada, or Islamic creed, in prominent white Arabic script that translates to, "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God;" the text is positioned above a white horizontal saber directed to the left

history: the flag's design originates from the early 20th century and is closely linked to the Al Saud family, which founded the kingdom in 1932; it features distinct sides to ensure the text is properly read from right to left and the saber points in the same direction on both faces

Capital

Suffrage

18 years of age; universal for municipal elections

Citizenship

Constitution

Country name

Independence

23 September 1932 (unification of the kingdom)

Legal system

Islamic (sharia) legal system incorporating elements of Egyptian, French, and customary law; commercial disputes resolved by specialized committees

Government type

absolute monarchy

Judicial branch

Executive branch

National holiday

Saudi National Day (Unification of the Kingdom), observed on 23 September (1932)

National color(s)

green, white

National heritage

Political parties

none

Legislative branch

National anthem(s)

National symbol(s)

palm tree over two crossed swords

Administrative divisions

13 regions (manatiq, singular - mintaqah); Al Bahah, Al Hudud ash Shamaliyah (Northern Border), Al Jawf, Al Madinah al Munawwarah (Medina), Al Qasim, Ar Riyad (Riyadh), Ash Sharqiyah (Eastern), 'Asir, Ha'il, Jazan, Makkah al Mukarramah (Mecca), Najran, Tabuk

Diplomatic representation in the US

Diplomatic representation from the US

International organization participation

ABEDA, AfDB (nonregional member), AFESD, AMF, BIS, BRICS, CAEU, CP, FAO, G-20, G-77, GCC, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OIC, OPCW, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOOSA, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO

International law organization participation

has not made an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; is not a party to the ICCt

Budget

Exports

Imports

Industries

crude oil extraction, petroleum processing, fundamental petrochemical production, ammonia, industrial gases, caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), cement, fertilizers, plastics, metals, ship repair for commercial purposes, aircraft repair for commercial purposes, construction activities

Labor force

17.168 million (2024 est.)

Public debt

Remittances

Exchange rates

Economic overview

wealthy, oil-dependent economy situated in the Middle East; a founding member of OPEC; implementation of the Vision 2030 initiative focusing on economic diversification, enhanced participation of the private sector, and projects backed by a sovereign wealth fund and foreign investments; a youthful workforce; a declining yet notable poverty rate despite the absence of official data

Unemployment rate

Exports - partners

China 21%, India 12%, Japan 12%, USA 6%, UAE 4% (2023)

Imports - partners

China 21%, UAE 8%, USA 7%, India 6%, Germany 5% (2023)

Real GDP per capita

Real GDP growth rate

Agricultural products

milk, dates, chicken, wheat, tomatoes, watermelons, potatoes, olives, eggs, onions (2023)

Exports - commodities

crude oil, refined oil, plastics, alcoholic beverages, ships (2023)

Imports - commodities

automobiles, refined oil, gold, broadcasting equipment, packaged pharmaceuticals (2023)

Current account balance

Taxes and other revenues

7.8% (of GDP) (2023 est.)

GDP (official exchange rate)

$1.238 trillion (2024 est.)

GDP - composition, by end use

Average household expenditures

Inflation rate (consumer prices)

Industrial production growth rate

-1.3% (2024 est.)

Real GDP (purchasing power parity)

Youth unemployment rate (ages 15-24)

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold

GDP - composition, by sector of origin

Coal

Petroleum

Electricity

Natural gas

Electricity access

Energy consumption per capita

Electricity generation sources

Internet users

Broadcast media

media outlets under government control; state-operated television manages four channels; significant audience for pan-Arab satellite television providers; government-operated radio featuring various networks; numerous foreign broadcasters are accessible

Internet country code

.sa

Telephones - fixed lines

Telephones - mobile cellular

Broadband - fixed subscriptions

Ports

Airports

90 (2025)

Railways

Heliports

69 (2025)

Merchant marine

Civil aircraft registration country code prefix

HZ

Military - note

Saudi Arabia's security concerns include border security, cyberattacks, instability in Yemen, international terrorism, maritime security, and regional rivals such as Iran and Turkey

Saudi Arabia has close security ties with the US; the SAAF conducts bilateral exercises with the US military and hosts US forces; the US has participated in a cooperative program to equip and train the SANG since 1973, and much of the equipment for both the regular forces and the SANG has been acquired from the US; Saudi Arabia also has defense relationships with China, France, India, Pakistan, the UK, and fellow Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) members; it is a member of the Peninsula Shield Forces, a joint military force established by the GCC countries with the aim of maintaining security and stability in the region; the force was established in 1982, and its leadership is based in Saudi Arabia (2025)

Military expenditures

Military and security forces

The Saudi Arabian Armed Forces (SAAF) are organized into two ministries:

Ministry of Defense: comprising the Royal Saudi Land Forces, Royal Saudi Naval Forces (which includes marines, special forces, and naval aviation), Royal Saudi Air Force, Royal Saudi Air Defense Forces, and the Royal Saudi Strategic Missiles Force; Ministry of the National Guard: which includes the Saudi Arabian National Guard (SANG).

Additional security entities include:

Ministry of Interior: Facilities Security Forces, Public Security Forces (police), General Directorate of Border Guard.

State Security Presidency (SSP): General Directorate of Investigation (Mabahith), Special Security Forces, Special Emergency Forces (2025).

Military service age and obligation

Voluntary military service is available for men aged 17 to 40 and women typically aged 21 to 40, although the maximum age may differ based on the role; there is no conscription in place (2025).

Military equipment inventories and acquisitions

The arsenal of the Saudi military forces, which includes the SANG, consists chiefly of modern weaponry obtained from foreign sources. Key suppliers are Canada, China, France, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Saudi Arabia ranks among the largest arms importers globally (2025).

Military and security service personnel strengths

There are approximately 250,000 active personnel in the Saudi Armed Forces, with 125,000 under the Ministry of Defense and another 125,000 in the National Guard (2025).

Terrorist group(s)

Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham (ISIS); al-Qa’ida

Refugees and internally displaced persons

Space agency/agencies

The Saudi Space Agency (SSA), which was upgraded from the former Saudi Space Commission (SSC) established in 2018; King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), founded in 1977 (2024)

Space program overview

possesses a national space strategy known as Vision 2030, aimed at expanding its domestic space industry while leveraging the space sector to promote economic diversification, foster scientific research and development, and increase participation from the private sector in the global space market; produces and manages communications, remote sensing (RS), and scientific satellites; develops various satellite subsystems and payload technologies; serves as the primary founder and financial backer of the Arab Satellite Communications Organization (Arabsat), which was launched in 1976 and is based in Riyadh; collaborates with numerous countries' space agencies and industries, including those from Belarus, China, Egypt, ESA and its member states (notably France, Germany, Greece, and Hungary), India, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Ukraine, the UAE, the UK, and the US; part of the Arab Space Cooperation Group (2025)

Key space-program milestones

1985 - the inaugural communications satellite (Arabsat-1A) was constructed and launched by European commercial entities; the first Saudi astronaut traveled to space aboard a US Space Shuttle

2004 - the first domestically produced experimental remote sensing (RS) satellite (SaudiSat-2) was launched by Russia

2017-2019 - contributed to China's robotic mission (Chang’e-4) to the Moon's far side

2021 - the domestically developed maritime-tracking satellite (Shaheen Sat) was launched by Russia; commenced involvement in Russia's astronaut training initiative

2022 - endorsed the US-led Artemis Accords concerning space and lunar exploration

2023 - dispatched two astronauts, including the first Saudi woman, to the International Space Station aboard a US commercial spacecraft